Bread Baking Course Chapter 3

Baking

Home-made breads which are thoroughly baked right through but not allowed to over bake and become dry, will have an excellent keeping quality. There are several ways to determine whether your loaves are baked to the right degree of being done.

Firstly, use the appearance as a guide. The loaves should look well risen and browned to the degree expected of the specific product. After taking a loaf from the oven, it should sound hollow when tapped with the knuckles on the top crust.

Loosen the sides carefully with a knife, bump the pan on a hard surface and shake it sideways to ensure that the bread leaves the pan. (Sesame seeds or crushed wheat sprinkled into greased pans facilitate easy removal of the loaves). Carefully turn out onto a cooling rack and turn over.

Gently press the sides of cooked products with the fingertips. A loaf should feel firm to the touch but slightly springy. If the sides dent markedly and feel soft, return to the pan and bake another 10 to 20 minutes, depending on your own discretion.

At this stage it may be necessary to cover the top crust loosely with foil to prevent further browning. It will not harm but in fact improve the texture as well as the keeping quality of your bread if you return it to the oven and bake it until completely firm and done.

Insufficient baking will cause breads to be doughy and moist in the center During cooling the doughy part will collapse and form a hollow which will spoil the texture of the entire product. The taste will also be affected, and a strong yeasty flavor will soon develop during storing.

Cooling and storing

After baking has been completed, the loaves should be removed from the pans immediately, unless otherwise stated in a specific recipe. Allow baked products to cool completely on a wire rack, away from draughts which will cause shrinkage. Do not wrap or store until quite cold and all the moisture has evaporated, for mold can only grow in the presence of moisture on the surface of breads.

For freezing, products should be wrapped airtight in plastic or aluminum foil. For storing, breads should be allowed to “breathe” and kept in loose plastic bags, large semi-airtight containers such as bread-tins with pin-holes for ventilation, or wrapped in a cloth. Be sure to keep bread-tins quite clean. They may be sterilized with any mild hydrochloride solution.

These are the golden rules to preserve freshness and prolong the keeping quality of your products. Brown-paper packages absorb moisture and will dry out breads, rolls or buns.

Although old-fashioned, a very practical way of storing breads, especially moist whole-wheat loaves, is to wrap them in cotton material or to place them in clean flour bags or pillow-slips. In Spain, where the climate is very hot, bread is kept in special cotton bread-bags which hang in an airy place, for instance at the back of the kitchen door. In this way the breads remain fresh tasting and moist instead of becoming sour and yeasty due to storing in small airtight containers or plastic bags.

Home-baked breads will become stale fairly quickly if baked and stored incorrectly, for no preservatives are added. A small amount of vinegar added to the liquid will act as a mild preservative, but moisture on the outside of loaves will still cause molding and staling. If cooled and stored correctly, your produce will remain fresh for 3 to 6 days, depending on the type of product and the climate.

Freezing

Freezing is the perfect answer for preserving freshness in cakes and breads but, unless it is done correctly, results will be poor. All products should be frozen while still quite fresh but completely cold to prevent moisture forming on the crust after wrapping.

Plastic wrap, plastic bags and light-weight foil make convenient wrappers as they can be sealed airtight. If products are not well sealed they will dry out and become hard and tasteless.

Yeast products may be kept frozen for up to 2 months, or only a day or two. Large breads should be given time to thaw before reheating. An average bread will require approximately 1 hour, and may be used as is or reheated as explained for individual products.

Your bread will taste marvelously fresh, but bear in mind that, after freezing, all breads and cakes become stale rapidly.

When baking for the freezer, plan your portions roughly according to requirements for one meal. Frozen small rolls or croissants may be popped into a preheated oven without defrosting, especially if they were baked until only half or three-quarters done.

Defrosting in a microwave oven is possible yet tricky, and personal experimenting is necessary for this procedure. Follow the instructions given for the specific oven.

Traditional South African “mosbolletjies” – must-rusks

Crushed ripe grapes have been called “mos” in the Cape wine lands for many years. “Moskonfyt” is a jam made of ripe grapes. For “mosbolletjies” the yeast is prepared from seeded raisins, covered with water and left to ferment. The fermented raisin liquid acts as the rising agent and at the same time imparts a characteristic flavor.

The addition of a small quantity of fresh compressed yeast or dry granular yeast will speed up the process of fermentation considerably, although it will also take place if only raisins are used.

Although a little more complicated to prepare, these favorite old-time Cape rusks are undoubtedly worth the effort. If you intend to dry out your rusks, you will have to guard your loaves well, because freshly – baked “mosbolletjies” are irresistible!

The preparation of “mosbolletjies” requires three basic steps. Firstly, the raisin yeast or must is prepared. The mixture is strained and the liquid used to make the sponge which is left to rise. Lastly the sponge is turned into the dough. The superfine texture is achieved by kneading the dough thoroughly twice.

Raisin yeast may replace the yeast and water in any recipe, but rising will be considerably slower. Very good for raising fruit loaves.

Raisin Yeast (must)

150 g seedless raisins

625 ml boiling water

6 g compressed yeast

Or

2.5 ml dry granules

1. Prepare the dough at least a day in advance. Cut raisins in half with a pair of scissors. Place in a large screw top jar. Add boiling water, and cool to room temperature. Add crumbled fresh yeast or granules, stir and cover tightly.
2. Leave 1 t o3 days until mixture becomes frothy and all the raisins have risen to the top. If the mixture stands in a warm spot it will ferment within 12 to 24 hours. A low temperature, however, will retard fermentation. The best time to prepare the sponge is early in the morning. If the fermentation is frothy before you are ready to use it, stir down and place in a cool spot.
3. Strain through a sieve and use the liquid to make the sponge. Press the liquid out of the raisins as well. (Raisins may be re-used in the same way for a second time or discarded.)

Sponge mixture

±280 g (500 ml) cake flour

±500 ml strained liquid from raisin yeast

6 g Compressed yeast

Or

2.5 ml dry yeast granules

(Yeast optional)

1. Prepare the mixture early in the morning. If strained liquid is less than 500 ml, make up with water. If liquid is slightly more, all of it may be used. Combine the liquid with the flour, and beat to form a smooth batter.
2. Cover, and allow to stand in a warm spot until spongy. This may take from 2 to 6 hours depending on the temperature, weather and the strength of the fermentation. If after 2 hours the mixture does not yet show signs of activity, another 6 g of compressed yeast may be crumbled and beaten into the mixture, or 2.5 ml dry yeast granules may be activated in 50 ml lukewarm water and then added in the same way.

Dough

625 ml lukewarm milk

250 g (280 ml) soft butter or margarine

3 eggs

25 ml salt

400 g (500 ml) sugar

15 ml aniseed (optional)

±2.5 kg cake flour (4 Lt)

1. Prepare the dough in the late morning or early afternoon. Beat down sponge and add milk, shortening (cut into portions), eggs, salt, sugar, aniseed and sufficient flour to form soft dough.
2. Knead down thoroughly on a well floured surface (10 to 15minutes). Dividing dough into portions simplifies kneading and ensures thorough kneading. (Kneading half of the dough at a time will give better results than kneading the larger piece of dough all at once, unless you are a very strong kneader!)
3. Cover and allow to rise in a slightly warm spot until doubled (2 to 3 hours).Knead thoroughly for a second time, cover and allow to rise until doubled (1 to 2 hours).
4. Do not punch down, but pinch off egg-sized balls of well risen dough and pack very tightly together in well-greased loaf pans to make the pans approximately half full.
5. Allow to rise until rusks have almost doubled in size and bake 40 to 50 minutes at 160º C until golden and firm. Turn out one loaf to test whether it is done. If not, return to the pan and bake a while longer. As soon as the top crust is a good golden color, you may cover the pans loosely with a large sheet of foil to prevent further browning.
6. Loosen around the sides, bump on a hard surface and shake pans from side to side to release loaves. Turn out and cool completely. Break apart and dry out.

Bread Baking Course Chapter 2

Bread Baking Course 

Chapter 2

The modern method of preparing yeast dough

This simplified method is infallible. The main steps normally used in old recipes, and which have been altered, are the following:

1.         Start off with all the liquid ingredients in the bowl, instead of the full       quantity of flour. Then add the flour gradually.

2.         Do not cream the butter and sugar-it makes no difference whatsoever, as the dough is to be kneaded afterward, and it saves preparation time.

3.         Do not heat the butter and the sugar with the milk in a saucepan. Add it to the mixing bowl with the lukewarm milk. It will melt soon enough and saves the trouble of scraping the sugar out of the saucepan.

4.         Unless you need a little egg to glaze the breads, add them to the liquids unbeaten. The eggs will blend into the dough during kneading.

The main steps involved in the preparation of almost every yeast dough are: preparing the yeast; mixing the dough; kneading; rising; punching down; shaping; choice and preparation of pans; rising for a second time; and baking. The following paragraphs will explain the methods for preparation, the problems that may arise, and how to avoid them. This should ensure excellent end results every time you bake.

Preparing the yeast

Prepare the yeast as specified in the recipe and according to one of the methods explained. To incorporate fresh yeast into the dough, it should be at least crumbled, creamed with salt and sugar to form a syrup, or dissolved in part of the liquid, with a small portion of the sugar added to activate the yeast cells. To prepare dry granules, follow instructions already mentioned. Prepare fresh yeast in a bowl large enough for the preparation of all the dough. Activate dry granules in a small container.

Mixing the dough

The next step is to add all the liquid ingredients, including the eggs if specified and the shortening, to the prepared yeast.(Sugar, salt, fruits and spices may be added now!! be aware, caution) or according to the recipe in question. Always test the temperature of the liquid with your finger to ensure that it is mildly lukewarm. Hot liquid will harm the yeast cells!

If the sponge method is used to start off the dough, part of the flour is now added to the liquids, but not the salt. Beat the mixture well, cover and allow to rise in a warm place till frothy and spongy. This will take normally from 15 to 30 minutes. At this stage add the rest of the ingredients and sufficient flour to form a soft dough that leaves the side of the bowl.

The amount of flour called for in the recipe may be measured or weighed out roughly. It is not necessary to sift the flour for yeast baking. In conventional cake making the flour is sifted to aerate the flour for accurate measuring and a lighter texture. For yeast baking your only guide to the exact amount of flour used, is the consistency of the dough.

Different makes of flour vary and at different times of the year flours may also vary in moisture content, and the exact amount is determined by the total amount of liquid in the dough. Thus you will find ± signs before the flour quantities in most recipes. If the moisture content of the flour is very low, less flour will be needed.

When applying the “straight” method of mixing, the sponge method is omitted. Half of the flour is added to the liquid and mixed in well by hand, with a wooden spoon or electric mixer. The rest of the flour is added gradually to ensure that the dough never becomes too dry or stiff. Dry dough is more difficult to knead, unsuccessful in rising and coarse and dry after baking.

The old-fashioned method of starting off with the flour in the bowl and then adding the liquid often results in a too dry dough, especially for the less-experienced baker. If more liquid is added at this stage, the ball of dough will slip around in the liquid without absorbing it. The only way to partly rectify this problem is to knead in more shortening.

For any dough to be kneaded it is much safer to always follow the simplified method of liquids first and the flour added until the right consistency is reached. (If any flour is left over, return it to the flour bin) If more flour than stated is required, use more. What counts is the consistency of the dough).

Kneading the dough

When enough flour has been added to form a soft, slightly sticky dough, transfer the dough to a flat, well floured surface suitable for kneading. The height of the working surface should be such that you can stand upright comfortably with the palms of the hands resting on the surface.

The main object of kneading is to develop the gluten in the dough to become strong elastic bands which will stretch while the dough is rising.

There is a lifelike quality to yeast dough as it is transformed by your hands during kneading from a sticky mass into a satin smoothness. The most comfortable and beneficiary relaxing way of kneading is with the palms of the hands and not with the knuckles. The arms are kept comfortably forward and no strain is placed on the outside of the upper arms. Roll the dough backwards and forwards rhythmically, punching into the dough with the palms of the hands with every rolling movement. This rhythmic movement actually relieves tension in the neck. In this way you may punch out all aggression on the dough instead of kicking the cat or counting worry beads!

If the roll becomes too long, tuck in the ends and give the dough a half-turn. Add more flour if necessary and clean off both hands and the working surface with flour if the dough sticks to either. Rhythmic kneading with moderate punching will contribute to the texture of the end product.

The exact time spent in kneading depends largely on the end result required, the size of the dough, the type of flour used and your efficiency at kneading. A rough guide is stated in most recipes, but do remember that, if cake flour is replaced by bread flour, kneading should be much longer at the first stage as well as at the punching down stage after the first rising.

If you are preparing dough for white bread or rusks, the dough should be very well kneaded (approximately 10 minutes) to become strong enough to yield a high risen loaf. Rolls, buns or pizzas only require kneading until the dough becomes smooth and elastic (approximately 5 minutes), for a much flatter product is required.

To test whether your dough has been kneaded sufficiently, poke a finger into it. The indentation should disappear immediately. The size of the dough will also play a part in the time spent kneading. Dividing the dough into smaller portions will simplify kneading, especially for an inexperienced kneader.

Rising

When the dough has been kneaded to the required stage of elasticity, it is ready for rising. All yeast doughs and batters should rise at least once. Place the dough into a floured or a greased bowl, allowing enough space for the dough to double in bulk. Sprinkle the dough with flour or turn it around in the bowl to grease it lightly all over. This prevents surface tension which may restrict rising.

The bowl used should not be more than three times the volume of the dough, for a too large bowl will not give enough support to the rising dough. Heavy stainless-steel saucepans with lids are suitable for rising at mild temperatures.

Cover bowls with well-fitting lids or plates. Damp cloths do not suffice to cover the bowl snugly and more often than not end up entangled in the dough, which leads to wastage.

The most suitable spot for rising is a slightly warm but never hot area, e.g. in a warm sunny room during winter, at room temperature during the warm summer months or, alternatively, stand your bowl of dough in a basin of warm water to set off the rising.

Warming ovens are only suitable if the ovens can be set at very low temperatures. Another method is to pre-heat the warming oven and switch it off as soon as the bowl is placed into it. (The bowl used for rising the dough should never become hot – only slightly warm to the touch).

Overnight rising is practical only for large quantities of dough made with small quantities of yeast (25 g yeast per approximately 2 kg flour). Ensure that the bowl is large enough for expansion overnight when you will not be able to check the rising.

Small quantities of dough in moderate weather will most likely overrise if left overnight at room temperature. Leaving the dough in the refrigerator overnight in warm weather will in most cases allow sufficient rising if the product is to be baked the next morning. All doughs will rise in the refrigerator, but at a much slower pace. Home-made potato or raisin yeasts are much slower and may be left to rise overnight.

Check rising after 30 to 60 minutes, and do not allow the dough to rise to much less or much more than doubled. Thorough rising results in a light textured product, but over rising will cause the dough to collapse – in the latter instance the dough should be kneaded down and risen again.

The strength of the yeast is limited and, if the dough is over risen, too little is preserved for the second rising. The end result will also be coarse and dry. Often the remark will be heard: “The first rising was fantastic, but nothing much happened during the second rising.” The reason for this has just been explained.

Punching down

When the dough has doubled its original size it needs to be punched down lightly. This gets rid of the air bubbles and refines the texture. If the dough is not punched down, the yeast cells are surrounded by air and do not come into contact with enough food to continue multiplying.

The punching down will set the yeast cells to start multiplying again, thus producing more carbon dioxide for the second rising. Punching down does not imply a lot more kneading. A few punches will reduce the dough to its original size. Bread-flour dough does require more kneading as has been explained.

Shaping

Much of the fun of yeast baking lies in the creative shaping of the dough into loaves, braids, rolls, cakes or whatever shape the specific recipe describes. Shaping is done according to instructions in the recipes, but your own individuality can play a part as well.

The same dough may be used for different products. Basic bread dough can, for example, be baked in a well greased loaf pan, shaped and baked on greased baking trays or turned into rolls. It may even be rolled with sweet or savory filling and baked as buns.

To shape the dough for a loaf pan, the following instructions should be carefully observed in order to obtain an even-shaped loaf. Break off sufficient dough, roughly judging that it will make the pan half full. Roll out the dough on a floured or oiled surface to approximately 25 to 30 mm thickness and not much wider than the length of the pan. Roll up Swiss roll style, tuck in the ends and place in the greased loaf pan with the seam underneath.

It is important that the roll touch the short ends of the pan to support the loaf while rising – this will prevent the bread from forming a point in the center. The dough lying next to the long ends need not touch the pan as the roll will expand sideways during rising.

To prepare dough for shaped loaves to be baked on baking trays instead of in bread pans, start off by dividing it into portions as required. These breads can be rolled into sausages or rounds. Slash the top at intervals with a sharp knife or cut it with a pair of scissors to give your bread a professional look.

White rolls or loaves may be brushed with egg beaten together with either water or milk, and sprinkled with sesame seeds or poppy seeds. Brown or white rolls or breads, in turn, may be rolled in crushed wheat.

Choice and preparation of pans

All pans or baking trays should be rust proof and well greased, preferably with hard-type margarine. Oil or butter is second best. Do not use non-stick vegetable spray – it reacts with the yeast dough which often remains in the pans for long periods while rising and baking, and spoils the taste and texture of the crust.

Non-stick pans are excellent for breads and also produce good golden crusts. Aluminum and glass bake ware are also successful.

Slight adaptations in baking times or temperatures may be made if necessary. For an attractive end result it is important to learn to determine how much dough to use for every size of pan.

For breads, pans should be made no more than half full and for rusks, no more than a third full. Do not overload pans – rather prepare a few buns with excess dough. If your pans are slightly larger or smaller than stated in a recipe, apply the rules mentioned above.

Second rising

Shaped products should rise for a second time until almost doubled. The second rising should take place in a warm, protected, draft-free area – do not cover. Covering breads or cakes at this stage may result in spoiling the top of the shaped product if the dough sticks to the cloth or utensil.

It is advisable to place the pans in an enclosed area such as a slightly warmed warming oven. When the product is light and risen, the oven should be ready for baking. The second rising will take approximately half the time of the first rising.

Transfer the products carefully to the preheated oven. Large breads should be baked lower down and smaller rolls or buns higher up. This is mainly to ensure that the breads will be thoroughly baked when the top crust is a good golden color.

The products will rise another 10 to 15 per cent during baking, and this is called the “oven spring”. If the pans for breads are more than half filled with dough and risen to the size required after baking, the oven spring might cause the top crust to mushroom over the sides of the pan instead of rounding attractively.

Bread Baking Course Chapter 1

Bread Baking Course
Chapter 1   (of 4 Chapters to follow daily)

Introduction

Baking with yeast is one of the great culinary joys to be experienced in your own kitchen. For the new as well as the old-time baker, yeast baking has proven to be creative and rewarding.

The taste and texture of home-baked breads fall into quite a different category from commercially baked products. For many, the aroma of bread being baked in the home oven has become only a memory from the past.

Quick-acting chemical rising agents and long shelf-life flours with preservatives that can never surpass that of a home-baked product, have replaced the art of baking breads to perfection with natural yeasts and flours.

Today, we can rediscover just how effortless yeast baking can be.

Know your ingredients

Yeast

Yeast cells are living organisms, which multiply under favorable conditions and produce carbon dioxide, which leavens the dough, as well as alcohol, which is responsible for the unmistakable aroma of yeast dough while baking. To multiply, yeast cells require moisture, food (sugar or carbohydrates) and the correct temperature. The optimum temperature for yeast activity is just above body temperature (approximately 39º C to 42º C), while temperatures even slightly warmer will harm or destroy the yeast cells.

When freezing yeast or raw prepared dough, the yeast cells are not destroyed but go into a rest phase and will become active again if the right temperature is reached. The speed at which yeast cells multiply is in accordance with the temperature and the latter influences the time needed for rising.

If you are in a hurry and you increase the yeast to rise fairly quickly at warmer temperatures (42º C to 45º C), make sure that your products are either eaten within a day after baking, or frozen. A yeasty or sour taste might develop, especially in brown breads, if this is not heeded.

Using fresh compressed yeast

Yeast should have a creamy-beige color and firm consistency with a yeasty but fresh smell. Fresh yeast crumbles easily, creams quickly, and, well-wrapped, can keep in the refrigerator for up to 10 days and frozen for 1 month in the freezer. Frozen yeast may be dissolved in lukewarm liquid and used immediately.

Substituting dried yeast granules for fresh yeast

Dried yeast granules in any recipe may replace fresh yeast. They should be kept refrigerated in well-sealed airtight containers to preserve activity. Substitute 5 ml granules for 25 g active compressed yeast. To activate, combine the following ingredients in a glass or plastic jug, stir to mix and leave until frothy. (The vinegar is added to neutralize the slightly stronger yeast flavor imparted by the dry granules.)

• 5 ml sugar
• 5 ml flour
• 125 ml lukewarm water
• 5 ml dried granules
• 2.5 ml vinegar (optional)

In cold weather stand the jug in a bowl of hot water for approximately 10 to 20 minutes until a thick froth forms on top of the liquid. If the mixture fails to produce a froth the yeast is inactive and should be discarded. It will not make the dough rise. If activated yeast is added to any recipe, the water may be subtracted from the liquid given in the recipe, or simpler still; the flour may be increased slightly while mixing the dough.

Incorporating the yeast into the dough

To become active as the rising agent, the yeast has to become part of the dough. This can be done in several ways:

1. Dissolve method:

The yeast, whether fresh or granular, is dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm liquid, with sugar and/or flour added to activate the yeast. The yeast liquid is then combined with the rest of the liquid ingredients, and flour added gradually.

2. Cream method:

This method can only be used for fresh yeast. The yeast is creamed with the salt and sugar in a bowl with a large spoon. It becomes syrupy and very active, and should be used without delay otherwise the yeast cells will start breaking down rapidly. This method is extremely suitable to use for cold doughs, such as Danish pastry and croissant dough. It also ensures that the yeast is immediately distributed evenly in the dough. If dry yeast is substituted, activate as described above, add the salt and sugar, and use as if creamed.

3. Sponge or batter method:

The fresh yeast or reconstituted granules are combined with an amount of liquid and flour, beaten to a batter (which need not be absolutely smooth), covered and allowed to stand in a warm place until spongy. This method imparts a characteristic texture and taste to the dough.

4. Direct method:

This method is only used for fresh yeast. Fresh yeast is crumbled into the liquid without activating it first, and the dough is made. With this method dough will be slower in rising, but during the kneading process the yeast will become evenly distributed in it.

Flour

Flour is the main ingredient of yeast dough, and the qualities of different flours determine the texture of the end product. Available on the shelves of most supermarkets are cake flour, bread flour, whole-wheat flour and crushed wheat.

Cake flour in South Africa is of a high standard and is hard enough to be used as an all-purpose flour. The term “hard” or “soft” used where flour is concerned, indicates whether it will be suitable for the making of dough or pie crusts. In some countries the white flour is so “soft” that it will not produce a successful bread, in which case bread flour is used.

Preference in home baking , especially for inexperienced bakers, is to use cake flour as bread flour requires much more kneading because of its slightly higher gluten content. The color of white bread flour is inclined to be greyish and the texture fairly coarse. To refine the texture a thorough second kneading is necessary, and an extra egg or two will improve the color. Nutritionally the difference is negligible. If kneaded thoroughly, a loaf prepared with bread flour will rise higher than one prepared with cake flour.

The protein in wheat flour is called gluten and, to be kneaded successfully, the flour used should contain enough gluten. During the kneading process the gluten is strengthened and develops strong elastic bands or threads in the dough, which will stretch or expand under the pressure of the carbon dioxide released by the multiplying yeast cells. The dough should be “strong” enough to prevent the gas from escaping.

Whole-wheat flour contains all the goodness of the grain. The whole kernel, including the bran and the wheat germ, is milled. For this reason one should include breads made partly or completely with whole-wheat flour in your daily bread allowance

On a varied diet which includes meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, fruits and a small portion of bread, white bread in moderation is quite acceptable.

      Furthermore, you can add additional wheat germ, digestive bran, oatmeal, crushed

wheat, rye flour, fruits and nuts to almost any of your breads to improve the taste as well as the nutritional value. For protein enriched breads made with either white or whole-wheat flour a small quantity of fat-free milk powder or soy flour can be added.

Eggs

In the preparation of yeast doughs eggs are added for flavor, color and richness, and not as a rising agent as in traditional cake making, where eggs are often the only rising agent.

In case of allergy to eggs, the eggs may be omitted in most recipes without a marked effect. An additional 15 ml of oil or shortening may be added for each egg omitted if the dough contains more than one egg.

Liquids

This may be water or milk. Fat-free milk powder, reconstituted or added to the flour, is ideal for all yeast doughs where milk is called for. The temperature of liquids should be mild lukewarm (39ºC to 42º C). In the case of un-pasteurised milk, the milk should be scalded and cooled again. This is done to destroy bacteria in the milk which might affect the yeast cells.

Pasteurised or powdered milk does not require scalding and can be heated to lukewarm only. The water in which potatoes have boiled may substitute part of the liquid and at the same time add flavour and nourishment to any yeast dough.

Salt

Salt in small quantities activates the yeast; but too large quantities inhibit or destroy yeast activity. Add the amount called for in the recipe but, if preferred, increase or reduce it slightly, using 2.5 ml per 140 g (250 ml) flour as a good average for bread dough. The dough should be neither salty nor tasteless. Do not add salt to the sponge if the batter method is used - add the salt at the second step, with the rest of the flour.

Sugar

A small quantity of sugar activates the yeast in the first stages. But the richer and sweeter the dough, the slower the rising. Roughly follow the given quantities. A little more sugar will make your buns or rusks sweeter without affecting the dough. If you prefer less sweet products, decrease the sugar accordingly to your own taste, but do not omit it completely.

Fats

The fat or shortening used may be butter, margarine, oil or lard. In certain doughs butter or margarine of a hard type is recommended because of its firmness (e.g. Danish pastry). It is irrelevant to the product whether butter or margarine is used, but it is important for your health to cut down on all animal fats.

Oil is often used for bread making because it prevents crumbling of bread when sliced. It also gives a finer texture and thinner crust. Butter or margarine may substitute oil. Lard is responsible for the very soft crust and light texture in certain doughs (e.g. bap rolls). Add the oil, or cubed or soft butter or margarine to the liquid ingredients, unless firm butter or margarine is to be sliced and folded into the dough for flakiness (e.g. croissants)

Additional Ingredients

There are several reasons for using additional ingredients. Most important, though, is to improve the appearance, taste and texture, or to give a nutritional boost.

1.      Poppy seeds:

The colourful poppy plant which is different from the opium-yielding variety has been cultivated for several thousand years. The minuscule grayish-blue or black seeds are grown commercially mainly in Holland and Poland, but Turkey and Argentina also produce small quantities. Sprinkled on rolls and breads the seeds impart a nutty taste and serve as a most decorative garnish.

2.      Sesame seeds:

The aromatic herbaceous sesame plant is native to India and grows to a height of approximately 1 meter. The plant is also cultivated in China, and produces tiny creamy-white or almost black seeds. The seeds are used whole, either in breads or sprinkled over loaves or rolls. During baking the seeds will, if sprinkled over breads, become toasted and develop a special nutty flavor. Apart from being decorative, the seeds also add additional crunch to the crust. The oil content of the seeds is relatively high, and nutrition wise they add oil soluble vitamins to the breads.

3.      Crushed Wheat:

The wheat kernel consists of three parts. The outer layer is called the bran, the center starchy portion is known as the endosperm and the embryo or germ is found on the inside. For crushed wheat the entire wheat kernel is used. By adding crushed wheat to bread, the percentage of bran and wheat germ is increased. If kept for long periods, crushed wheat should be stored in airtight containers in the refrigerator. It is susceptible to spoilage because of the fat in the wheat germ.

4.      Wheat germ:

In the wheat germ is concentrated most of the vitamins (mainly B complex and E), fat, protein and minerals of wheat. Adding wheat germ is a way of increasing nutritional value without adding more starch. For increased flavor wheat germ may be toasted in a moderate oven until golden. Keep well sealed and refrigerated if not used within a short period.

5.      Digestive bran or processed cereal bran:

The outer layer or bran provides the necessary bulk and roughage without contributing any other nutritional elements or starch. It does, though, add flavor, and breads relatively high in bran will have the advantage of being relatively low in kilojoules. Bran may be purchased coarsely ground in the natural form or highly processed in the form of breakfast cereals. The latter is more tasty but considerably higher in price. Both types may be added to breads.

6.      Soy Flour:

Soy flour is ground from the protein-rich soy bean and is certainly the best way of enriching breads with protein. It is highly flavored and should be added to breads in moderation. Skim-milk powder is second in line when it comes to protein enrichment. Approximately 10 ml of each can safely be added to 250 ml flour without any marked effect.

7.      Molasses:

Molasses is thick dark-brown syrup which is obtained as a by-product of sugar refining. The sugar crystals are separated out and the remaining syrup has a highly concentrated mineral content with a slightly bitter taste due to the extraction of almost all of the sugar. Molasses added to bread increases its mineral content, adds an attractive color and makes whole-wheat loaves slightly heavier and less crumbly. Use it in small quantities, though, as family members may not have all acquired the taste for it. In bread recipes where molasses is not given as an optional ingredient substitution with honey or syrup is possible.

8.      Sunflower seeds:

The sunflower was originally brought from Mexico and Peru by the Spaniards and is now cultivated widely. The seeds contain fat-soluble vitamins and are an excellent energy food rich in essential fatty acids which help to bring about the lowering of blood cholesterol levels. After baking or toasting the seeds have a nutty taste and add flavor, especially if sprinkled over loaves.